Psychotherapeutic Options for Post-Pandemic Stress Syndrome
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12974/2313-1047.2023.10.06Keywords:
PPSD, PTSD, Healthcare workers, Psychological therapies for trauma, CBT, CPT, EMDR, PE, SFBTAbstract
The COVID-19 pandemic and the traumatic events associated with it have triggered many negative emotional reactions, including anxiety, fear, stress and even depressive disorders in many people, especially among health care workers who risked their health and lives fighting on the front lines of the fight against the pandemic. Many of them, after a period of extreme stress and uncertainty associated with the condition, developed the so-called post-pandemic stress syndrome, affecting many aspects of mental health and often making it difficult to function normally in daily life.
Adequate psychological support for medics in the post-pandemic period is crucial, as it affects the functioning of the health care system worldwide. Currently, there are a variety of therapies for post-pandemic stress syndrome. These include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), cognitive processing therapy (CPT), Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy, group therapy, Prolonged Exposure Therapy (PE), or Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT). The choice of the appropriate one depends on the therapist, who selects the method for each patient's individual needs.
References
R. Bajoulvand, S. Hashemi, E. Askari, et al. Post-pandemic stress of COVID-19 among high-risk groups: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 2022; 319(15): 638-645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.053
Y. Li, N. Scherer, L. Felix, H. Kuper Prevalence of depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder in health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2021; 16(3): e0246454. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246454
E.G. Splig, C.H. Rushton, J.L. Phillips, et al. The new frontline: exploring the links between moral distress, moral resilience and mental health in healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Psychiatry 2022; 22: 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03637-w
N. Himde What To Know About So-Called Post Pandemic Stress Disorder (https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/post-pandemic-stress-disorder_uk_60534a34c5b6e32eb4afa802).
S.A. Elghazally, A.F. Alkarn, H. Elkhayat, et al. Burnout Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Health-Care Professionals at Assiut University Hospitals, 2020. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021; 18(10): 5368. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105368
American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), 2013; 5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
C.A. Blevins, F.W. Weathers, M.T. Davis, et al. The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): development and initial psychometric evaluation J. Trauma. Stress., 2015; 28(6): 489-498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059
C. Carmassi, V. Pedrinelli, V. Dell'Oste, et al. PTSD and Depression in Healthcare Workers in the Italian Epicenter of the COVID-19 Outbreak. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health. 2021; 17: 242-252. https://doi.org/10.2174/1745017902117010242
R. Bajoulvand, S. Hashemi, E. Askari, et al. Post-pandemic stress of COVID-19 among high-risk groups: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 2022; 319: 638-645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.053
J. Cooper, A.J. Phelps, Ch. H Ng, D. Forbes Diagnosis and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic. Australian Journal of General Practice 2020; 9: 785-789. https://doi.org/10.31128/AJGP-07-20-5557
H. Sims, C. Alvarez, K. Grant Frontline healthcare workers experiences and challenges with in-person and remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study. Frontline. Public Health 2022; 10: 983414. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.983414
J. Raudenská, V. Steinerová, A. Javůrková, et al. Occupational burnout syndrome and post-traumatic stress among healthcare professionals during the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 2020; 34: 553-560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpa.2020.07.008
N. Greenberg, L. Rafferty Post-traumatic stress disorder in the aftermath of COVID-19 pandemic. World Psychiatry. 2021; 20(1): 53-54. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20838
M. Sekowski, M. Gambin, K. Hansen, et al. Risk of Developing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Severe COVID-19 Survivors, Their Families and Frontline Healthcare Workers: What Should Mental Health Specialists Prepare For? Frontline. Psychiatry. 2021; 12: 562899. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.562899
N. Smallwood, A. Pascoe, L. Karimi, K. Willis Moral Distress and Perceived Community Views Are Associated with Mental Health Symptoms in Frontline Health Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021; 18(16): 8723. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168723
S. Chemali, A. Mari-Sáez, C. El Bcheraoui, H. Weishaar Health care workers' experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic: a scoping review Human Resources for Health 2022; 20(27). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-022-00724-1
F. Chamaa, H.F. Bahmad, B. Darwish PTSD in the COVID-19 Era. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2021; 19(12): 2164-2179. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X19666210113152954
L. E. Watkins, K. R. Sprang, B. O. Rothbaum Treating PTSD: A Review of Evidence-Based Psychotherapy Interventions. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 2018; 12: 258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00258
Ford, J. D. Treating Complex Traumatic Stress Disorders: An Evidence-Based Guide. The Guilford Press 2021.
Courtois, C. A., & Ford, J. D. (Eds.). Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: An Evidence-Based Guide. The Guilford Press 2009.
Raja, S., & Ludy, M. J. (Eds.). Trauma-Informed Practices for Mind-Body Wellness: A Practical Guide to Working with Trauma Survivors. Routledge 2020.
S. G. Hofmann, A. Asnaani, I. J. J. Vonk, et al. The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Review of Meta-analyses. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2012; 36(4): 27-440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-012-9476-1
A.T. Beck Cognitive therapy: Nature and relation to behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy 1970; 1: 184-200.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(70)80030-2
Ellis Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York: Lyle Stuart 1962.
J. Chang, J. M. Ray, D. Joseph, et al. Burnout and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Among Emergency Medicine Resident Physicians During the COVID-19 Pandemic. West J Emerg Med. 2022; 23(2): 251-257. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2021.11.53186
Hanani, M. Badrasawi, S. Zidan, et al. Effect of cognitive behavioral therapy program on mental health status among medical student in Palestine during COVID pandemic. BMC Psychiatry 2022; 22; 310. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03915-1
J. C. Moring, K. A. Dondanville, B. A. Fina Cognitive Processing Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder via Telehealth: Practical Considerations During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2020; 33: 371-379. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22544
D. F. Gros, C. L. Lancaster, C. M López, R. Acierno Treatment satisfaction of home-based telehealth versus in-person delivery of prolonged exposure for combat-related PTSD in veterans. J Telemed Telecare 2018; 24(1): 51-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1357633X16671096
K. P. Maieritsch, T. L. Smith, J. D. Hessinger, et al. Randomized controlled equivalence trial comparing videoconference and in-person delivery of cognitive processing therapy for PTSD. J Telemed Telecare 2016; 22(4): 238-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1357633X15596109
O. E. Bogucki & C. N. Sawchuk Cognitive Processing Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Due to COVID-19-Related Traumas: A Case Study. Psychological Services 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000630
F. Shapiro (2002) EMDR treatment: Overview and integration. In F. Shapiro (Ed.), EMDR as an integrative psychotherapy approach: Experts of diverse orientations explore the paradigm prism (pp. 27-55). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10512-002
F. Shapiro The Role of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy in Medicine: Addressing the Psychological and Physical Symptoms Stemming from Adverse Life Experiences. Perm J. 2014; 18(1): 71-77. https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/13-098
R. M. Solomon, F. Shapiro EMDR and the Adaptive Information Processing ModelPotential Mechanisms of Change. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research. 2008; 2(4): 315-325. https://doi.org/10.1891/1933-3196.2.4.315
Fernandez, M. Pagani, E. Gallina Post-traumatic stress disorder among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy: Effectiveness of an eye movement desensitization and reprocessing intervention protocol. Front. Psychol. 2022; 13: 964334. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.964334
M. Nijdam, B. Gersons, J. Reitsma, A. De Jongh & M. Olff. Brief eclectic psychotherapy v. eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: Randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 2012; 200(3): 224-231. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.111.099234
C. P. McLean, E. B. Foa. Prolonged Exposure Therapy. In: Schnyder, U., Cloitre, M. (eds) Evidence-Based Treatments for Trauma-Related Psychological Disorders. Springer, Cham 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97802-0_8
E. B. Foa. Prolonged exposure therapy: Past, present, and future. Depression and Anxiety, 2011; 28(12): 1043-1047. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20907
L. A. Brown, L. J. Zandberg & E. B. Foa. Mechanisms of change in prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Implications for clinical practice. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 2019; 29(1): 6-14. https://doi.org/10.1037/int0000109
V. Minnen, E. M. Voorendonk, L. Rozendaal, A. de Jongh. Sequence matters: Combining Prolonged Exposure and EMDR therapy for PTSD. Psychiatry Research 2020; 290: 113032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113032
S. de Shazer (1985) Keys to Solution in Brief Therapy ISBN-13: 9780393700046.
F. P. Bannink Solution-Focused Brief Therapy. J Contemp Psychother 2007; 37: 87-94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-006-9040-y
J. J. Choi The Role of the Solution-Focused Brief Therapist in Client-Led Problem Talks, The American Journal of Family Therapy. 2021; 49(4): 356-372.
J. Joubert & T. Guse. Implementing solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) to facilitate hope and subjective well-being among South African trauma survivors: A case study. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 2021; 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12416
J. Li, Y. Liu Intervention Effect of the Video Health Education Model Based on Solution-Focused Theory on Adolescents' Mental Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Iran J Public Health 2021; 50(11): 2202-2210.
