The Effect of COVID on Child Maltreatment: A Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12974/2313-1047.2022.09.3Keywords:
Pandemic, Child abuse, Adverse Childhood Experiences, Children, Parents, Teachers, Educational systemAbstract
This article addresses child maltreatment during the period where COVID-19 entered our lives in 2020. Repeated lockdowns kept children at home, away from school, from their support systems, and from their daily routines. Parents have also been plagued by the economic challenges associated with remote living. This not only places additional stress on the quality of their livelihoods but also, renders their caregiving duties as exceedingly onerous. This article explores the reasons that ACEs increased during that time, and highlights what can parents, teachers, and the educational system do about it.
References
Abedi, V., Olulana, O., Avula, V., Chaudhary, D., Khan, A., Shahjouei, S., Ji, J., & Zand, R. (2021). Racial, economic, and health inequality and COVID-19 infection in the United States. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 8, 732-742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00833-4
Abidin, R. R., Zalaquett, C. P., & Wood, R. J. (1997). Evaluating stress: A book of resources. Scarecrow Education.
Agrawal, N. & Kelley, M. (2020). Child abuse in times of crises: Lessons learned. Clinical Pediatric Emergency Medicine, 21(3), 100801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpem.2020.100801
Allen-Ebrahimian, B. (2020, May 7). China’s domestic violence epidemic. Axios. https://www.axios.com/chinadomestic- violencecoronavirus-quarantine-7b00c3ba-35bc- 4d16-afdd-b76ecfb28882.html
Anderson, R. M., Heesterbeek, H., Klinkenberg, D., & Hollingsworth, T. D. (2020). How will country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic? The Lancet, 395(10228), 931-934. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30567-5
Baggett, K. M., Davis, B., Feil, E. G., Sheeber, L. B., Landry, S. H., Carta, J. J., & Leve, C. (2010). Technologies for expanding the reach of evidence - based interventions: Preliminary results for promoting social - emotional development in early childhood. Topics in Early Child Special Education, 29(4), 226 - 238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121409354782
Baggett, K. M., Davis, B., Feil, E., Sheeber, L., Landry, S., Leve, C., & Johnson, U. (2017). A randomized controlled trial examination of a remote parenting intervention: Engagement and effects on parenting behavior and child abuse potential. Child Maltreatment, 22(4), 315 - 323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517712000
BBC News. (2020, June 1). Coronavirus lockdown ‘perfect storm’ for abused children - Sajid Javid. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-52876226
Becker-Blease, K. A., Turner, H. A., & Finkelhor, D. (2010). Disasters, victimization, and children's mental health. Child Development, 81(4), 1040-1052. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01453.x
Beekman, J. B., Stock, M. L., & Marcus, T. (2016). Need to belong, not rejection sensitivity, moderates cortisol response, self - reported stress, and negative affect following social exclusion. The Journal of Social Psychology, 156(2), 131 - 138. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2015.1071767
Berger, L. M., & Waldfogel, J. (2011). Economic determinants and consequences of child maltreatment. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, 111. https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kgf09zj7h9ten
Berger, R. P., Fromkin, J. B., Stutz, H., Makoroff, K., Scribano, P. V., Feldman, K., Tu, L. C., & Fabio, A. (2011). Abuse head trauma during a time of increased unemployment: A multicenter analysis. Pediatrics, 128(4), 637 - 643. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.20102185
Biswas, A., Rahman, A., Mashreky, S., Rahman, F., & Dalal, K. (2010). Unintentional injuries and parental violence against children during flood: A study in rural Bangladesh. Rural and Remote Health, 10(1), 1199.
Bliss, D. L., & Meehan, J. (2008). Blueprint for creating a social work-centred disaster relief initiative. Journal of Social Service Research, 34(3), 73-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488370802086401
Boddy, J., Young, A., & O’Leary, P. (2020, March 12). ‘Cabin fever’: Australia must prepare for the social and psychological impacts of a coronavirus lockdown. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/cabin-feveraustralia- must-prepare-for-the-social-and-psychologicalimpacts- of-a-coronavirus-lockdown-133353
Brassard, M. R., & Fiovanti, C. M. (2015). School-based child abuse prevention programs. Psychology in the Schools, 52(1), 40-60. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21811
Brianda, M. E., Roskam, I., Gross, J. J., Franssen, A., Kapala, F., Gérard, F., & Mikolajczak, M. (2020). Treating parental burnout: Impact of two treatment modalities on burnout symptoms, emotions, hair cortisol, and parental neglect and violence. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 89(5), 330-332. https://doi.org/10.1159/000506354
British Broadcasting Corporation
[BBC]. (2020, March 30). Coronavirus: ‘Domestic abuse pandemic likely due to shutdown’. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-52076789
Bromfield, L. M., Gillingham, P., & Higgins, D. J. (2007). Cumulative harm and chronic child maltreatment. Developing Practice: The Child Youth and Family Work Journal, 19, 34- 42.
Brooks - Gunn, J., Schneider, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2013). The great recession and the risk for child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(10), 721 - 729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.08.004
Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912 - 920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
Browne, K. (2002). Child abuse: Defining, understanding and intervening. In Wilson, K. & James, A. (Eds.), The child protection handbook (pp. 50-70)
Bryant, D.J., Oo, M. & Damian, A.J. (2020). The rise of adverse childhood experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(S1), S193-S194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000711
Bryce, I. (2020). Responding to the accumulation of adverse childhood experiences in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic: Implications for practice. Children Australia, 45, 80-87. https://doi.org/10.1017/cha.2020.27
Bugental, D. B., Mantyla, S. M., & Lewis, J. (1989). Parental attributions as moderators of affective communication to children at risk for physical abuse. In Cicchetti, D. & Carlson, V. (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 254-279). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511665707.00
Buljan Flander, G., Čorić, V. i Štimac, D. (2008). Iskustvo, znanja i stavovi liječnika primarne zdravstvene zaštite u Republici Hrvatskoj o zlostavljanju i zanemarivanju djece
[Experience, knowledge and attitudes of primary care physicians in the Republic of Croatia and child abuse and neglect]. Suvremena Psihologija, 11(2), 313-328.
Burgard, S. A., & Kalousova, L. (2015). Effects of the great recession: Health and wellbeing. Annual Review of Sociology, 41, 181-201. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112204
Burgard, S. A., Seefeldt, K. S., & Zelner, S. (2012). Housing instability and health: Findings from the Michigan Recession and Recovery Study. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 75(12), 2215-2224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.08.020
Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., Ernst, J. M., Burleson, M., Berntson, G. G., Nouriani, B., & Spiegel, D. (2006). Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(6), 1054- 1085. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.007
Calaway, J. (2020, March 22). Spike in severe child abuse cases likely result of COVID-19. Checkup News Room. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.checkupnewsroom.com/spike-in-severe-childabuse- cases-likely-result-of-covid-19/
Campbell, A. M. (2020). An increasing risk of family violence during the COVID-19 pandemic: Strengthening community collaborations to save lives. Forensic Science International: Reports, 2, 1000089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsir.2020.100089
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. (2021, June 16). Tracking the COVID-19 recession’s effects on food, housing, and employment hardships. https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-andinequality/ tracking-the-covid-19-recessions-effects-on-foodhousing- and
Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2016). Building core capabilities for life: The science behind the skills adults need to succeed in parenting and in the workplace. Harvard University. https://46y5eh11fhgw3ve3ytpwxt9r-wpengine.netdnassl. com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Building-Core- Capabilities-for-Life.pdf
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, May 13). People with certain medical conditions. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extraprecautions/ people-with-medicalconditions. html#:~:text=Similar%20to%20adults%2C%20chil dren%20with,severe%20illness%20from%20COVID%2D19.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Risk and protective factors. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandnegle ct/riskprotectivefactors.html#Risk%20Factors%20for%20Victi mization
Cherry, R., & Wang, C. (2016). The link between male employment and child maltreatment in the U.S., 2000 - 2012. Children and Youth Services Review, 66, 117 - 122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.05.008
Childhelp. (2020). Hotline impact report. https://www.childhelp.org/wpcontent/ uploads/2020/10/Hotline-Impact-Report-FY20.pdf
Christodoulou, C., Douzenis, A., Papadopoulos, F. C., Papadopoulou, A., Bouras, G., Gournellis, R., & Lykouras, L. (2012). Suicide and seasonality. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 125(2), 127-146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01750.x
Chuck, E. (2020, April 4). ‘Hard for helpers, too’: Faced with their own Coronavirus fears, crisis hotline counselors answer surge in calls. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/hard-helperstoofaced- their-own-coronavirus-fears-crisis-hotline-n1176301
Clay, R. A. (2020, March 18). COVID-19 isn’t just a danger to older people’s physical health. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/news/apa/2020/covid-19- danger-physical-health
Coker, A. L., Bush, H. M., Cook-Craig, P. G., DeGue, S. A., Clear, E. R., Brancato, C. J., Fisher, B. S., & Recktenwald, E. A. (2017). RCT testing bystander effectiveness to reduce violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 52(5), 566-578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.01.020
Commonwealth Bank Group. (2020, March 30). An early look at how the Coronavirus is affecting household spending. Commbank. https://www.commbank.com.au/guidance/business/an-earlylook- at-how-the-coronavirus-is-affecting-household-spen- 202003.html
Courtin E., Allchin E., Ding A.J., Layte R. (2019) The role of socioeconomic interventions in reducing exposure to adverse childhood experiences: A systematic review. Current Epidemiology Reports, 6, 423-441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-019-00216-2
Craig, L., & Churchill, B. (2020). Dual-earner parent couples’ work and care during COVID-19. Gender, Work, and Organization. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12497
Cross, D., Vance, L. A., Kim, Y. J., Ruchard, A. L., Fox, N., Jovanovic, T., & Bradley, B. (2018). Trauma exposure, PTSD, and parenting in a community sample of low-income, predominantly African American mothers and children. Psychological, 10(3), 327-335. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000264
Crowe, A. (2020, June 7). Child abuse websites crash during coronavirus lockdowns. The Canberra Times. https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6783641/childabuse- websites-crash-during-coronaviruslockdowns/# gsc.tab=0
Cuartas, J. (2020). Heightened risk of child maltreatment amid the COVID-19 pandemic can exacerbate mental health problems for the next generation. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(1), S195-S196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000597
Currie, J., & Widom, C. S. (2010). Long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect on adult economic well-being. Child Maltreatment, 15(2), 111-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559509355316
Curtis, T., Miller, B. C., & Berry, E. H. (2000). Changes in reports and incidence of child abuse following natural disasters. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(9), 1151-1162. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(00)00176-9
Da Silva, C. (2020, March 25). Crisis helpline sees surge in messages from young people anxious over Coronavirus. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/crisis-helpline-seessurge- messages-young-people-anxious-over-coronavirus- 1494260
Danese, A., Smith, P., Chitsabesan, P., & Dubicka, B. (2020). Child and adolescent mental health amidst emergencies and disasters. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 216(3), 159-162. http://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2019.244
Dannlowski, U., Stuhrmann, A., Beutelmann, V., Zwanzger, P., Lenzen, T., Grotegerd, D., Domschke, K., Hohoff, C., Ohrmann, P., Bauer, J., Lindner, C., Postert, C., Konrad, C., Arolt, V., Heindel, W., Suslow, T., & Kugel, H. (2012). Limbic scars: Long-term consequences of childhood maltreatment revealed by functional and structural magnetic resonance imaging. Biological Psychiatry, 71(4), 286-293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.10.021
Đapić, M. R., Flander, G. B., & Prijatelj, K. (2020). Children behind closed doors due to COVID-19 isolation: Abuse, neglect and domestic violence. Archives of Psychiatry Research, 56(2), 181-192. https://doi.org/10.20471/dec.2020.56.02.06
Davies, S., & Batha, E. (2020, March 26). Europe braces for domestic abuse ‘perfect storm’ amid coronavirus lockdown. Thomson Reuters Foundation News. https://news.trust.org/item/20200326160316-7l0uf
Davis, M. F., & Green, J. (2020, April 23). Three hours longer, the pandemic workday has obliterated work-life balance. Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04- 23/working-from-home-in-covid-era-means-three-morehours- on-the-job?srnd=premium
Dee T. S. (2001). Alcohol abuse and economic conditions: evidence from repeated cross-sections of individual-level data. Health Economics, 10(3), 257-270. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.588
Delaleu, N. (2020, July 4). COVID-19: Stopping the rise in domestic violence during lockdown. Europarl. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/pressroom/ 20200406IPR76610/covid-19-stopping-the-rise-indomestic- violence-during-lockdown
Ding, Y., Xu, J., Huang, S., Li, P., Lu, C., & Xie, S. (2020). Risk perception and depression in public health crises: evidence from the COVID-19 crisis in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(16), 5728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165728
Douglas, M., Katikireddi, S. V., Taulbut, M., McKee, M., & McCartney, G. (2020). Mitigating the wider health effects of Covid-19 pandemic response. BMJ, 369, m1557. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1557
Duncan, E. (2020, March 27). NSW domestic violence support groups warn Coronavirus isolation is prompting surge in demand for services. ABC Net. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-27/coronavirusdomestic- family-violence-covid-19-surge/12096988
Edwards, V. J., Holden, G. W., Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: Results from the adverse childhood experiences study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(8), 1453-1460. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.8.1453
Eklund, K., Meyer, L., & Bosworth, K. (2018). Examining the role of school resource officers on school safety and crisis response teams. Journal of School Violence, 17(2), 139 - 151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2016.1263797
Elder, H. G., & Conger, D. R. (2014). Children of the land: Adversity and success in rural America. The University of Chicago Press.
Evans, S. (2020, April 22). CCPD, SPD report recent rise in domestic violence calls. WTOC. Retrieved January 11, 2021, from https://www.wtoc.com/2020/04/22/ccpd-spd-reportrecent- rise-domestic-violence-calls/
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8
Felix, E. D., You, S., & Canino, G. (2015). Family influences on the relationship between hurricane exposure and Ataques de Nervios. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(8), 2229- 2240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0025-2
Finkelhor, D. (1983). Common features of family abuse. In Finkelhor, D., Gelles, R. J., Hotaling, G. T., & Straus, M. A. (Eds.), The dark side of families: Current family violence research (pp. 17-28). SAGE Publications.
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007a). Polyvictimization: A neglected component in child victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(1), 7-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.06.008
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007b). Revictimization patterns in a national longitudinal sample of children and youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(5), 479-502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.03.012
Finzi-Dottan, R., & Harel, G. (2014). Parents’ potential for child abuse: An intergenerational perspective. Journal of Family Violence, 29(4), 397-408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-014-9592-7
Fischer, H.T., Elliott, L,. & Bertrand, S.L. (2018). Guidance note: Protection of children during infectious disease outbreaks. The Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action. https://alliancecpha.org/en/system/tdf/library/attachments
Fitz-Gibbon, K., & Meyer, S. (2020, March 18). Coronavirus: Fear of family violence spike as COVID-19 impact hits households. Monash Lens University. https://lens.monash.edu/@politicssociety/ 2020/03/18/1379841/coronavirus-fear-of-familyviolence- spike-as-covid-19-impact-hits-households
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1986). Stress processes and depressive symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95(2), 107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.95.2.107
Fortson, B. L., Klevens, J., Merrick, M. T., Gilbert, L. K., & Alexander, S. P. (2016). Preventing child abuse and neglect: A technical package for policy, norm, and programmatic activities. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://dx.doi.org/10.15620/cdc.38864
Fox, C. L., Corr, ML., Gadd, D., & Sim, J. (2016). Evaluating the effectiveness of domestic abuse prevention education: Are certain children more or less receptive to the messages conveyed? Legal and Criminological Psychology, 21(1), 212 - 227. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12046
Frude, N. (1991). Understanding family problems: A psychological approach. John Wiley & Sons.
Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., & Vlahov, D. (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. The New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 982-987. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa013404
Galea, S., Merchant, R.M. & Lurie, N. (2020). The mental health consequences of COVID-19 and physical distancing: The need for prevention and early intervention. JAMA Internal Medicine, 180(6), 817-818. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.1562
Gershoff, E. T., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H. R., Davis - Kean, P., & Sameroff, A. J. (2012). Longitudinal links between spanking and children’s externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families. Child Development, 83(3), 838 - 843. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14678624.2011.01732.x
Gershoff, E. T., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Kean, P., & Sameroff, A. J. (2012). Longitudinal links between spanking and children's externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families. Child Development, 83(3), 838-843. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01732.x
Gilbert, L. K., Breiding, M. J., Merrick, M. T., Thompson, W. W., Ford, D. C., Dhingra, S. S., & Parks, S. E. (2015). Childhood adversity and adult chronic disease: An update from ten states and the District of Columbia, 2010. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 48(3), 345-349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2014.09.006
Gilmore, D. (2010). Chronic child neglect: Building knowledge, fostering hope. Policy & Practice, 68(3), 12-13.
Grattan, L. M., Roberts, S., Mahan Jr., W. T., McLaughlin, P. K., Otwell, S., & Morris Jr., J. G. (2011). The early psychological impacts of the deepwater horizon oil spill on Florida and Alabama communities. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(6), 838-843. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002915
Green P. (2020). Risks to children and young people during covid-19 pandemic. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 369(8244), m1669. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1669
Griffith A. K. (2020). Parental burnout and child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Family Violence, 1-7. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00172-2
Haj-Yahia, M. M., Sokar, S., Hassan-Abbas, N., & Malka, M. (2019). The relationship between exposure to family violence in childhood and post-traumatic stress symptoms in young adulthood: The mediating role of social support. Child Abuse & Neglect, 92, 126-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.03.023
Hatters Friedman, S., & Resnick, P. J. (2007). Child murder by mothers: Patterns and prevention. World Psychiatry, 6(3), 137-141.
Hayden, T. (2020, April 1). Santa Barbara Child Abuse Spikes Amid Coronavirus Lockdown. Santa Barbara Independent. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.independent.com/2020/04/01/santa-barbarachild- abuse-spikes-amid-coronavirus-lockdown/
Hennessy, M. (2020, May 20). ‘Isolated at home with their tormentor’: Childline experiences increase in call since closure of schools. Thejournal.ie. https://www.thejournal.ie/childline-calls-coronavirus-5053104- Mar2020/
Herrenkohl, T. I., Sousa, C., Tajima, E. A., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Moylan, C. A. (2008). Intersection of child abuse and children's exposure to domestic violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 9(2), 84-99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008314797
Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and social Psychology, 60(3), 456-470. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.60.3.456
Hiraoka, D., & Tomoda, A. (2020). Relationship between parenting stress and school closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 74(9), 497-498. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.13088
Hollander, J. E., & Carr, B. G. (2020). Virtually perfect? Telemedicine for Covid - 19. New England Journal of Medicine, 382(18), 1679 - 1681. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2003539
Holmes, E. A., O'Connor, R. C., Perry, V. H., Tracey, I., Wessely, S., Arseneault, L., Ballard, C., Christensen, H., Cohen Silver, R., Everall, I., Ford, T., John, A., Kabir, T., King, K., Madan, I., Michie, S., Przybylski, A. K., Shafran, R., Sweeney, A., Worthman, C. M., … Bullmore, E. (2020). Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for action for mental health science. The Lancet, 7(6), 547-560. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30168-1
Hubert, S., & Aujoulat, I. (2018). Parental burnout: When exhausted mothers open up. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01021
Humphreys, K.L. Myint, M.T. & Zeanah, C.H. (2020). Increased risk for family violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Pediatrics, 146(1), e20200982. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-0982
Joiner, T. R., Lieberman, A., Stanley, I. H., & Reger, M. A. (2020). Might the COVID-19 pandemic spur increased murder-suicide? Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 12(3), 177-182. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-05-2020-0502
Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (1993). A test of the social support deterioration model in the context of natural disaster. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(3), 395- 408. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.64.3.395
Kennedy, S. (2020, April 6). Jobs destroyed worldwide as Coronavirus triggers deep recession. Japan times. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/04/06/business/eco nomy-business/jobs-destroyed-worldwide-coronavirusrecession/#. XpUVQcgzbD4
Kim, W. A., Nyengerai, T. & Mendenhall, E. (2020). Evaluating the mental health impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic: Perceived risk of COVID-19 infection and childhood trauma predict adult depressive symptoms in urban South Africa. Psychological Medicine, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720003414
Kimber, M., McTavish, J. R., Vanstone, M., Stewart, D. E., & MacMillan, H. L. (2021). Child maltreatment online education for healthcare and social service providers: Implications for the COVID-19 context and beyond. Child Abuse & Neglect, 116(Pt 2), 104743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104743
Korzinski, D. (2020, March 24). COVID-19: Those least equipped to endure economic downturn bearing the brunt of layoffs. Angusreid. https://angusreid.org/covid-19-economic-impact-canada/print
Kovler, M. L., Ziegfeld, S., Ryan, L. M., Goldstein, M. A., Gardner, R., Garcia, A. V., & Nasr, I. W. (2021). Increased proportion of physical child abuse injuries at a level I pediatric trauma center during the Covid-19 pandemic. Child Abuse & Neglect, 116(2), 104756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104756
Lawson, M., Piel, M. H., & Simon, M. (2020). Child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic: Consequences of parental Job loss on psychological and physical abuse towards children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 110(2), 104709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104709
Lee J. (2020). Mental health effects of school closures during COVID-19. The Lancet, 4(6), 421. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30109-7
Lee, A. M., Wong, J., McAlonan, G. M., Cheung, V., Cheung, C., Sham, P. C., Chu, S. M., Wong, P. C., Tsang, K. W. T., & Chua, S. E. (2007). Stress and psychological distress among SARS survivors 1 year after the outbreak. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 52(4), 223240. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370705200405
Lee, J. S., Romich, J. L., Kang, J. Y., Hook, J. L., & Marcenko, M. O. (2017). The impact of income on reunification among families with children in out - of - home care. Children and Youth Services Review, 72, 91 - 99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.020
Lee, S. J., & Ward, K. P. (2020). Stress and parenting during the coronavirus pandemic. University of Michigan. https://www.parentingincontext.org/uploads/8/1/3/1/8131862 2/research_brief_stress_and_parenting_during_the_coronavi rus_pandemic_final.pdf
Li, D., Chu, C. M., Ng, W. C., & Leong, W. (2014). Predictors of re-entry into the child protection system in Singapore: A cumulative ecological-transactional risk model. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(11), 1801-1812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.08.017
Li, J. B., Yang, A., Dou, K., Wang, L. X., Zhang, M. C., & Lin, X. Q. (2020). Chinese public’s knowledge, perceived severity, and perceived controllability of COVID-19 and their associations with emotional and behavioural reactions, social participation, and precautionary behaviour: A national survey. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/5tmsh
Lindo, J. M., Schaller, J., & Hansen, B. (2018). Caution! Men not at work: Gender-specific labor market conditions and child maltreatment. Journal of Public Economics, 163, 77-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.04.007
Lindström, C., Aman, J., & Norberg, A. L. (2011). Parental burnout in relation to sociodemographic, psychosocial and personality factors as well as disease duration and glycaemic control in children with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Acta Paediatrica, 100(7), 1011-1017. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02198.x
Liu, S., Yang, L., Zhang, C., Xiang, YT., Liu, Z., Hu, S., & Zhang, B. (2020). Online mental health services in China during the COVID - 19 outbreak. The Lancet, 7(4), E17 - E18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30077-8
Long, H., Van Dam, A., Fowers, A., & Shapiro, L. (2020, September 30). The COVID-19 recession is the most unequal in modern U.S. history. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/business/cor onavirus-recession-equality/
Lopez, E. (21, July 2020). Amid pandemic, more than half of calls to national sexual assault are from children. 11Alive. https://www.11alive.com/article/news/health/coronavirus/ami d-the-pandemic-more-than-half-of-calls-to-national-sexualassault- hotline-are-from-children/85-c8f3af97-2244-45f8- 8104-da372bd5d75d
Luchetti, M., Lee, J. H., Aschwanden, D., Sesker, A., Strickhouser, J. E., Terracciano, A., & Sutin, A. R. (2020). The trajectory of loneliness in response to COVID-19. American Psychologist, 75(7), 897-908. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000690
Lundberg, M., & Wuermli, A. (Eds). (2012). Children and youth in crisis: Protecting and promoting human development in times of economic shocks. The World Bank. Washington. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-9547-9
Luseno, W. K., Field, S. H., Iritani, B. J., Odongo, F. S., Kwaro, D., Amek, N. O., & Rennie, S. (2021). Pathways to depression and poor quality of life among adolescents in Western Kenya: Tole of anticipated HIV stigma, HIV risk perception, and sexual behaviours. AIDS and Behaviour, 25(5), 1423-1437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02980-5
Mackenzie, M. J., Kotch, J. B., & Lee, L. C. (2011). Toward a cumulative ecological risk model for the etiology of child maltreatment. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(9), 1638-1647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.04.018
MacNeil, S. (2020, March 31). Doctor warns of child abuse risks during pandemic, economic downturn. NBC Montana. https://nbcmontana.com/news/local/dr-warns-of-child-abuserisks- during-pandemic-economic-downturn
Making Caring Project. (2021). Relationship mapping strategy. Harvard Graduate School of Education. https://mcc.gse.harvard.edu/resources-foreducators/ relationship-mapping-strategy
Martinkevich, P., Larsen, L. L., Græsholt-Knudsen, T., Hesthaven, G., Hellfritzsch, M. B., Petersen, K. K., Møller- Madsen, B., & Rölfing, J. D. (2020). Physical child abuse demands increased awareness during health and socioeconomic crises like COVID-19. Acta Orthopaedica, 91(5), 527-533. https://doi.org/10.1080/17453674.2020.1782012
Martín-María, N., Caballero, F. F., Miret, M., Tyrovolas, S., Haro, J. M., Ayuso-Mateos, J. L., & Chatterji, S. (2020). Differential impact of transient and chronic loneliness on health status. A longitudinal study. Psychology & Health, 35(2), 177-195. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2019.1632312
Maurage, P., Joassin, F., Philippot, P., Heeren, A., Vermeulen, N., Mahau, P., Delperdange, C., Corneille, O., Luminet, O., & de Timary, P. (2012). Disrupted regulation of social exculsion in alcohol - dependence: An fMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37(9), 2067 - 2075. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2012.54
McLaughlin, K. A., Conron, K. J., Koenen, K. C., & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Childhood adversity, adult stressful life events, and risk of past-year psychiatric disorder: A test of the stress sensitization hypothesis in a population-based sample of adults. Psychological Medicine, 40(10), 1647-1658. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709992121
McLaughlin, K. A., Weissman, D., & Bitrán, D. (2019). Childhood adversity and neural development: A systematic review. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1, 277-312. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084950
Meyer, S. (2020, April 9). COVID-19: The bystander role has never been more critical in calling out family violence. Monash Lens University. https://lens.monash.edu/@politicssociety/ 2020/04/09/1380037/covid-19-the-bystander-rolehas- never-been-more-critical-in-calling-out-family-violence
Mikolajczak, M., Brianda, M. E., Avalosse, H., & Roskam, I. (2018). Consequences of parental burnout: Its specific effect on child neglect and violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 80(1), 134-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.025
Mikolajczak, M., Gross, J. J., & Roskam, I. (2019). Parental burnout: What is it, and why does it matter? Clinical Psychological Science, 7(6), 1319-1329. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702619858430
Mikolajczak, M., Raes, M. E., Avalosse, H., & Roskam, I. (2018). Exhausted parents: Sociodemographic, child-related, parent-related, parenting and family-functioning correlates of parental burnout. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(2), 602-614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0892-4
Miller, G. (2020, March 16). Social distancing prevents infections, but it can have unintended consequences. Sciencemag. https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/03/weare- social-species-how-will-social-distancing-affect-us
Miller, T. W., & Kraus, R. F. (1994). Natural and environmental disasters: Psychological issues and clinical responses. Integrative Psychiatry, 10(3), 128-132.
Morese, R., Palermo, S., Defedele, M., Nervo, J., & Borraccino, A. (2019). Vulnerability and social exclusion: Risk in adolescence and old age. In R. Morese, & S. Palermo (Eds), The new forms of social exclusion (pp. 1 - 6). Intech. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85463
Mulvey, K. L., Boswell, C., & Zheng, J. (2017). Causes and consequences of social exclusion and peer rejection among children and adolescents. Report on Emotional & Behavioral Disorders in Youth, 17(3): 71-75.
Müller, N., Krause, D., Barth, R., Myint, A. M., Weidinger, E., Stettinger, W., Zill, P., Drexhage, H., & Schwarz, M. J. (2019). Childhood adversity and current stress are related to pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 253, 270-276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.04.088
Naccarato, L. (2020, March 17). COVID-19 has Kids Help Phone calling for more volunteers as services swamped with calls. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/- toronto/covid-19-has-kids-help-phone-calling-for-morevolunteers- as-service-swamped-with-calls-1.5499687
National Centre for Health Statistics. (2012). Healthy people 2010: Final review. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Washington. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hpdata2010/hp2010_final_rev iew.pdf
National Research Council. (1993). Chapter 5: Prevention. In National Research Council, Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/2117
National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to children. (n.d.). Coronavirus (COVID-19) and keeping children safe from abuse. NSPCC. https://www.nspcc.org.uk/keepingchildren- safe/reporting-abuse/coronavirus-abuse-neglectvulnerable- children/
Nau, M. D. (2016). Whose financial crisis? How the great recession reshaped economic instability and inequality in the U.S. (Doctoral dissertation). http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4670-4092
Newman, K. L. S. (2012). Shut up: Bubonic plague and quarantine in early modern England. Journal of Social History, 45(3), 809-834. https://doi.org/10.1093/jsh/shr114
Newman, T., & Blackburn, S. (2002). Transitions in the lives of children and young people: Resilience factors: Interchange 78. Scottish Executive Education Department. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED472541.pdf
Norman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., & Vos, T. (2012). The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine, 9(11), e1001349. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349
North Texas hospital reports spike in severe child abuse cases; Believe linked to stress from Coronavirus Pandemic. (2020, March 20). CBSLocal. Retrieved July 2, 2021, from https://dfw.cbslocal.com/2020/03/20/texas-hospital-spikesevere- child-abuse-cases-coronavirus/
Oliver, E. (2014). Zero violence since early childhood: The dialogic recreation of knowledge. Qualitative Inquiry, 20(7), 902 - 908. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800414537215
Oosterman, M., Schuengel, C., Forrer, M. L., & De Moor, M. H. (2019). The impact of childhood trauma and psychophysiological reactivity on at-risk women's adjustment to parenthood. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 127-141. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001591
Opel, N., Redlich, R., Zwanzger, P., Grotegerd, D., Arolt, V., Heindel, W., Konrad, C., Kugel, H., & Dannlowski, U. (2014). Hippocampal atrophy in major depression: A function of childhood maltreatment rather than diagnosis? Neuropsychopharmacology, 39(12), 2723-2731. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.145
Panadero, S., Vázquez, J. J., & Martin, R. M. (2016). Alcohol, poverty and social exclusion: Alcohol consumption among the homeless and those at risk of social exclusion in Madrid. Adicciones, 29(1), 33 - 36. https://doi.org/10.20882/adicciones.830
Parker, K., Horowitz, J. M., & Brown, A. (2020, April 21). About half of lower-income Americans report household job or wage loss due to COVID-19. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/socialtrends/ 2020/04/21/about-half-of-lower-income-americansreport- household-job-or-wage-loss-due-to-covid-19/
Partap, A., Coffman, J., & Camp, T. (2020, May 1). Child abuse rising in Fort Worth amid Coronavirus: Here’s what you can do to help. Star-Telegram. https://www.startelegram. com/opinion/opn-columns-blogs/othervoices/ article242420876.html
Pelton, L. H. (2015). The continuing role of material factors in child maltreatment and placement. Child Abuse & Neglect, 41, 30 - 39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.08.001
Peterman, A., Potts, A., O’Donnell, M., Thompson, K., Shah, N., Oertelt-Prigione, S., & van Gelder, N. (2020). Pandemics and violence against women and children (Working Paper No. 528). Center for Global Development. https://www.cgdev.org/sites/default/files/pandemics-andvawg- april2.pdf
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (1983). Learned helplessness and victimization. Journal of Social Issues, 39(2), 103-116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1983.tb00143.x
Peterson, C., Florence, C., & Klevens, J. (2018). The economic burden of child maltreatment in the United States, 2015. Child Abuse & Neglect, 86, 178-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.09.018
Pew Research Center (2020). Most Americans say Coronavirus outbreak has impacted their lives. Per Social Trends. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/wp content/uploads/sites/3/2020/03/PSDT_03.30.20_W64- COVID-19.Personal-impact-FULL-REPORT.pdf
Pierce, G. R., Sarason, B. R., & Sarason, I. G. (1992). General and specific support expectations and stress as predictors of perceived supportiveness: An experimental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(2), 297-307. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.63.2.297
Pitt, S. (2020, April 23). Crisis calls from P.E.I. kids to help line increase 70% during pandemic. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/peicrisis- kids-help-line-covid-pandemic-social-services- 1.5542947
Platoff, E. (2020, March 27). Out of sight, child abuse in Texas thought to be on the rise. The Texas Tribune. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.texastribune.org/2020/03/27/texas-coronaviruschild- abuse-likely-rise-risk/
Posick, C., Schueths, A. A., Christian, C., Grubb, J. A. & Christian, S. E. (2020). Child victim services in the time of COVID-19: New challenges and innovative solutions. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45, 680 - 689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09543-3
Quadara, A., Nagy, V., Higgins, D., & Siegel, N. (2015). Conceptualising the prevention of child sexual abuse: Final report (Research Report No. 33). Australian Institute of Family Studies. https://aifs.gov.au/publications/conceptualising-preventionchild- sexual-abuse
Quiroz, H. J., Parreco, J., Easwaran, L., Willobee, B., Ferrantella, A., Rattan, R., Thorson, C. M., Sola, J. E., & Perez, E. A. (2020). Identifying populations at risk for child abuse: A nationwide analysis. Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 55(1), 135-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2019.09.069
RAINN. (20, April 2020). The national hotline consortium open letter to COVID-19. https://www.rainn.org/sites/default/files/Hotline%20Consortiu m%20HOUSE%20CC%20.pdf
Raphael, J. L., Zhang, Y., Liu, H., & Giardino, A. P. (2010). Parenting stress in US families: Implications for paediatric healthcare utilization. Child Care, Health and Development, 36(2), 216-224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01052.x
Reuters. (2020, March 13). As domestic abuse rises in lockdown, France to fund hotel rooms. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/3/31/as-domesticabuse- rises-in-lockdown-france-to-fund-hotel-rooms
Richards, L. (2009). Domestic abuse, stalking and harassment and honour based violence (DASH, 2009) risk identification assessment and management model. Association of the Chemical Profession of Ontario
[ACPO], & Coordinated Action Against Domestic Abuse
[CAADA]. https://www.dashriskchecklist.co.uk/wpcontent/ uploads/2016/09/DASH-2009.pdf
Roca, E., Melgar, P., Gairal-Casadó, R., & Pulido-Rodríguez, M. A. (2020). Schools that ‘open doors’ to prevent child abuse in confinement by COVID-19. Sustainability, 12(11), 4685. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114685
Rodriguez C. M. (2010). Parent-child aggression: Association with child abuse potential and parenting styles. Violence and Victims, 25(6), 728-741. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.6.728
Rosenthal, C. M. & Thompson, L. A. (2020). Child abuse awareness month during the Coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(8). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1459
Roskam, I., Brianda, M. E., & Mikolajczak, M. (2018). A step forward in the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout: The Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 758. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00758
Rovner, B. W., Haller, J. A., Casten, R. J., Murchison, A. P., & Hark, L. A. (2014). Depression and risk perceptions in older African Americans with diabetes. Diabetes Spectrum, 27(2), 114-118. https://doi.org/10.2337/diaspect.27.2.114
Rudolph, J., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2018). Reviewing the focus: A summary and critique of child-focused sexual abuse prevention. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 19(5), 543- 554. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016675478
Rutter, M., Kent, M. W., & Rolf, J. G. (1979). Primary prevention of psychopathology, vol. 3: Social competence in children. Psychiatric Services, 31(4), 279 - 280.
Rutter, M., Tizard, J., Yule, W., Graham, P., & Whitmore, K. (1976). Research report: Isle of Wight Studies, 1964-1974. Psychological Medicine, 6(2), 313-332. https://doi.org/10.1017/s003329170001388x
Sacks, V. H., & Murphey, D. (2018). The prevalence of adverse childhood experiences, nationally by, by state, and by race/ethnicity. Child Trends. https://www.childtrends.org/publications/prevalence-adversechildhood- experiences-nationally-state-race-ethnicity
Sameroff, A. J. (2000). Dialectical processes in developmental psychopathology. In Sameroff, A., Lewis, M. & Miller, S. (Eds), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 23-40). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9608-3
Sameroff, A., Seifer, R., Zax, M., & Barocas, R. (1987). Early indicators of developmental risk: Rochester Longitudinal Study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13(3), 383-394. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/13.3.383
Schenck-Fontaine, A., & Gassman-Pines, A. (2020). Income inequality and child maltreatment risk during economic recession. Children and Youth Services Review, 112, 104926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104926
Schenck-Fontaine, A., Gassman-Pines, A., & Hill, Z. (2020). Use of informal safety nets during the supplemental nutrition assistance program benefit cycle: How poor families cope with within-month economic instability. Social Service Review, 91(3), 456-487. https://doi.org/10.1086/694091
Schmidt, S., & Natanson, H. (2020, April 30). With kids stuck at home, ER doctors see more severe cases of child abuse. The Washington Post. Retrieved January 11, 2021, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/04/30/childabuse- reports-coronavirus/
Schneider, D., Harknett, K., & McLanahan, S. (2016). Intimate partner violence in the great recession. Demography, 53(2), 471-505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-016-0462-1
Schneider, W., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks - Gunn, J. (2013). The great recession and risk for child abuse and neglect. Child and Youth Services Review, 37(10), 721-729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.08.004
Scott, K. M., Smith, D. R., & Ellis, P. M. (2010). Prospectively ascertained child maltreatment and its association with DSMIV mental disorders in young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(7), 712-719. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.71
Seddighi, H., Salmani, I., Javadi, M. H., & Seddighi, S. (2021). Child abuse in natural disasters and conflicts: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 22(1), 176- 185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019835973
Seiglie, C. (2004). Understanding child outcomes: An application to child abuse and neglect. Review of Economics of the Household, 2(2), 143-160. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:REHO.0000031611.38185.d3
Simione, L., & Gnagnarella, C. (2020). Differences between health workers and general population in risk perception, behaviors, and psychological distress related to COVID-19 spread in Italy. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2166. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02166
Sinha, I. P., Harwood, R., Semple, M. G., Hawcutt, D. B., Thursfield, R., Narayan, O., Kenny, S. E., Viner, R., Hewer, S. L., & Southern, K. W. (2020). COVID-19 infection in children. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 8(5), 446-447. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30152-1
Sistovaris, M., Miller, S., Collin-Vezina, D., & Fallon, B. (2020, April 3). Child welfare and pandemics: What we know and what we can do
[PowerPoint slides]. ISPCAN. https://www.ispcan.org/wpcontent/ uploads/2020/04/ISPCAN_Pandemics_finalslides. pdf
Sorkkila, M., & Aunola, K. (2020). Risk factors for parental burnout among Finnish parents: The role of socially prescribed perfectionism. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(3), 648-659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01607-1
Sousa, C., Herrenkohl, T. I., Moylan, C. A., Tajima, E. A., Klika, J. B., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Russo, M. J. (2011). Longitudinal study on the effects of child abuse and children's exposure to domestic violence, parent-child attachments, and antisocial behavior in adolescence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(1), 111-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510362883
Spinelli, M., Lionetti, F., Pastore, M., & Fasolo, M. (2020). Parents’ stress and children’s psychological problems in families facing the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1713. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01713
Sprague, C.M., Kia-Keating, M., Felix, E., Afifi, T., Reyes, G., & Afifi, W. (2015). Youth psychosocial adjustment following wildfire: The role of family resilience, emotional support, and concrete support. Child Youth Care Forum, 44(3), 433-450 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-014-9285-7
Sriskandarajah, V., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2015). Predictors of violence against children in Tamil families in northern Sri Lanka. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 146, 257-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.010
Stark, E. (2009). Coercive control: The entrapment of women in personal life. Oxford University Press.
Steinberg, L. D., Catalano, R., & Dooley, D. (1981). Economic antecedents of child abuse and neglect. Child Development, 52(3), 975-985. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129102
Stith S.M., Liu T., Davies C., Boykin E.L., Alder M.C., Harris J.M. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A metaanalytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violence Behavior, 14(1), 13-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.03.006
Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, L. C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., Som, A., McPherson, M., & Dees, J. E. M. E. G. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(1), 13-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.03.006
Swedo, E., Idalkkadar, N., Leemis, R., Dias, T., Radhakrishman, L., Stein, Z., Chen, M., Agathis, N., & Holland, K. (2020). Trends in U.S. emergency department visits related to suspected or confirmed child abuse and neglect among children and adolescents aged <18 years before and during the COVID-19 pandemic - United States, January 2019 - September 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 69(49), 1841-1847. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6949a1
Séjourné, N., Sanchez-Rodriguez, R., Leboullenger, A., & Callahan, S. (2018). Maternal burn-out: an exploratory study. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 36(3), 276- 288. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2018.1437896
Taub, A. (2020, April 6). A new Covid - 19 crisis: Domestic abuse rises worldwide. The New York Times. Retrieved January 11, 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/06/world/coronavirusdomestic- violence.html
Teicher, M. H., Samson, J. A., Anderson, C. M., & Ohashi, K. (2016). The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 17(10), 652. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.111
Tener, D., & Sigad, L. (2019). “I felt like I was thrown into a deep well”: Educators coping with child sexual abuse disclosure. Children and Youth Services Review, 106, 104465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104465
Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D'Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357-385. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483907
The Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action. (2019). Technical note: Protection of children during the coronavirus pandemic (V.1). https://www.unicef.org/media/65991/file/Technical%20note:% 20Protection%20of%20children%20during%20the%20coron avirus%20disease%202019%20(COVID- 19)%20pandemic.pdf
The National Centre for Injury Prevention and Control (NCIPC), Division of Violence Prevention. (2020). Risk and protective factors. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandnegle ct/riskprotectivefactors.html
Thornton, J. (2020). COVID-19: A&E visits in England fall by 25% in week after lockdown. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 369(8241), m1401. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1401
Tobin, G. A., & Ollenburger, J. C. (1996). Predicting levels of postdisaster stress in adults following the 1993 floods in the upper midwest. Environment and Behavior, 28, 340-357. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916596283004
Tracy, M., Norris, F. H., & Galea, S. (2011). Differences in the determinants of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression after a mass traumatic event. Depression & Anxiety, 28(8), 666 - 675. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20838
Turner, S. G., & Maschi, T. M. (2015). Feminist and empowerment theory and social work practice. Journal of Social Work Practice, 29(2), 151-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650533.2014.941282
Tutten, J. (2020, March 31). Coronavirus: Florida child abuse, domestic violence hotlines see surge of calls in March. WFTV. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.wftv.com/news/local/orange-county/coronavirusflorida- child-abuse-domestic-violence-hotlines-see-surgecalls- march/GK476LJPIFCXBM2Z7DUAVMALJE/
UN News. (2020, April 14). Online predators put millions of children at risk during COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. UN News. https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/04/1061742
UNICEF. (2020, March 20). COVID - 19: Children at heightened risk of abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence amidst intensifying containment measures. https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/covid-19-childrenheightened- risk-abuse-neglect-exploitation-and-violenceamidst
UNICEF. (2020, March 25). COVID-19: Children at heightened risk of abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence amidst intensifying containment measures. https://www.unicef.org/guineabissau/press-releases/covid- 19-children-heightened-risk-abuse-neglect-exploitation-andviolence- amidst
United Nations. (2009). 2009 UNISDR terminology on disaster risk reduction. United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. https://www.undrr.org/publication/2009-unisdr-terminologydisaster- riskreduction#:~: text=30%20p.,authorities%2C%20practitioners %20and%20the%20public.
Usher, K., Bhullar, N., Durkin, J. & Jackson, D. (2020). Family violence and COVID-19: Increased vulnerability and reduced options for support. International Journal of Mental Health, 29(4), 549-552. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12735
van Gelder, N., Peterman, A., Potts, A., O'Donnell, M., Thompson, K., Shah, N., Oertelt-Prigione, S., & Gender and COVID-19 working group (2020). COVID-19: Reducing the risk of infection might increase the risk of intimate partner violence. E Clinical Medicine, 21, 100348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100348
Vu, N. L., Jouriles, E. N., McDonald, R., & Rosenfield, D. (2016). Children's exposure to intimate partner violence: A meta-analysis of longitudinal associations with child adjustment problems. Clinical Psychology Review, 46, 25-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.003
Wagers, S. M. (2020, April 8). Domestic violence growing in wake of Coronavirus outbreak. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/domestic-violence-growing-inwake- of-coronavirus-outbreak-135598
Walsh, K., Zwi, K., Woolfenden, S., & Shlonsky, A. (2018). School-based education programs for the prevention of child sexual abuse: A Cochrane systematic review and metaanalysis. Research on Social Work Practice, 28(1), 33-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731515619705
Wang, C., Pan, R., Wan, X., Tan, Y., Xu, L., McIntyre, R. S., Choo, F. N., Tran, B., Ho, R., Sharma, V. K., & Ho, C. (2020). A longitudinal study on the mental health of general population during the COVID-19 epidemic in China. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 40-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.028
Wekerle, C., Wolfe, D. A., Dunston, J., & Alldred, T. (2014). Child maltreatment. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (pp. 737-798, 3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Welch, M., & Haskins, R. (2020). What COVID-19 means for America’s child welfare system. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/research/what-covid-19-meansfor- americas-child-welfare-system/
Widom, C. S., Czaja, S., & Dutton, M. A. (2014). Child abuse and neglect and intimate partner violence victimization and perpetration: A prospective investigation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(4), 650-663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.11.004
Woodall, C. (2020, May 13). As hospitals see more severe child abuse injuries during coronavirus, ‘the worst is yet to come’. USA Today. Retrieved January 11, 2021, from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/05/13/hos pitals-seeing-more-severe-child-abuse-injuries-duringcoronavirus/ 3116395001/
World Health Organization
[WHO]. (2020a, June 8). Child maltreatment. https://www.who.int/news-room/factsheets/ detail/child-maltreatment
World Health Organization
[WHO]. (n.d.). Home. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from https://www.who.int/
World Health Organization. (2020b). Global status report on preventing violence against children 2020. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240004191
Yetter, D. (2020, March 18). Kentucky is limiting in - person child abuse investigations because of the coronavirus. Courier Journal. https://www.courierjournal. com/story/news/2020/03/18/coronavirus-kentuckysocial- workers-face-issues-amid-pandemic/5066284002/
Zeuthen, K., & Hagelskjær, M. (2013). Prevention of child sexual abuse: Analysis and discussion of the field. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 22(6), 742-760. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2013.811136
Zhong, B., Chen, S., & Conwell, Y. (2016). Effects of transient versus chronic loneliness on cognitive function in older adults: Findings from the Chinese longitudinal healthy longevity survey. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 24(5), 389-398. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2015.12.009
Zimmerman, M. A. (2000). Empowerment theory. In handbook of community psychology (pp. 43-63). Springer.